Micro concrete is a flowable mortar for repairs to damaged reinforced concrete members. The quantity of aggregate which can be incorporated may be limited by the method of placing. If a simple pouring technique is used, 10mm aggregate may form 50% of the total, dry materials, but if pumping is preferred the aggregate size and quantity will need to be reduced to suit the limitations of the pump.

When the repair section exists in only one plane, i.e. a simple vertical section, it is sufficient to pour the material in from the top of the shutter, it will not suffer the severe segregation which occurs with normal concretes.

Micro concrete is the combination of cement, prime quality stratified fine mixture, shrinkage compensating agents, and dispersion agents in powder type marketed as a dry powder in packets by construction chemical firms. this can be to be mixed with a planned quantity of water betting on the consistency sought-after – flowable or pourable. Applied as repair mortar or to fill the crevices that can not be done by standard concrete.

Micro concrete could be a dry prepared combine building material based mostly composition developed primarily for employed in repairs works once the concrete is broken and also space is restricted in movement thanks to that there’s a drawback in putting concrete. small concrete is in dry powder from supplemental with clean water on the positioning and it’s a decent quality cement.

SUPERFICIAL MICRO CONCRETE IN VERTICAL SECTION

If the repair is more than 1.5 m wide it is advisable to have two pouring points being fed simultaneously. is also necessary to consider venting the top of the cavity if it is enclosed. Fig. shows the placing of superficial micro concrete in a vertical section.

SUPERFICIAL MICRO CONCRETE IN SOFFIT

If repair is to a soffit the supply arrangements will be quite different. If the soffit is to a moderately thin Slab, it may be possible to drill feed holes and vent holes right through the slab. If the area exceeds 1.5 m2 it would be wise to have a second feed hole.

The material should not be poured directly down the holes but through a loose-fitting PVC pipe, a rainwater pipe says 50 mm or larger, extending 0.5 m above the top of the void as shown in Fig.

PROPERTIES OF MICRO CONCRETE

• Can be pumped or poured into restricted locations.
• Flowable mortar hence does not. require compaction.
• Gaseous expansion system compensates for shrinkage and settlement in the plastic state.
• Develops high initial and ultimate final strengths.
• Offers excellent resistance to moisture ingress.
• Can be applied at 100 mm thickness at one stroke.

APPLICATION OF MICRO CONCRETE

• Repair of structural elements like a beam, column, slab where there is no compaction space available.
• For column jacketing

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Why We Use Reinforced Brickwork ?

1. When the brickwork has to bear tensile and shear stresses.
2. When it is required to increase the longitudinal bond.
3. When the brickwork is supported on soil that is susceptible to a large settlement.
4. When the brickwork is supposed to act as a beam or lintel over openings.
5. When the brickwork is to resist lateral loads such as in retaining walls etc.
6. When the brick wall is to carry heavy compressive loads.
7. When the brickwork is to be used in seismic areas since it can also resist lateral loads.

Reinforced brickwork uses first-class bricks with high compressive strength. Dense cement mortar
is used to embed the reinforcement.

Reinforcement For Reinforced Brickwork

Following are the reinforcement used for reinforced brickwork.

(i) Hoop iron
(ii) Mild steel bars
(iii) Mile steel flats
(iv) Expanded mesh

The reinforcement is laid either horizontally or vertically.

A) Horizontal Reinforcement

Horizontal reinforcement for wall consists of either

(1) Wrought iron flat bar. known as hoop iron
(2) Steel mesh
(3) Longitudinal reinforcement

(1) Hoop Iron

Hoop Iron shows the hoop iron reinforcement for a brick wall. Generally, two strips of hoop iron are used per header brick and one hoop iron per stretcher brick i.e. one strand of hoop iron for each half brick thickness of the wall. Mild steel flats may also be used in place of hoop iron. It is usual to reinforce every switch course. Mild steel flat bars may have a width between 22 to 32 mm and a thickness equal to 0.25 to 16 mm.

Protection against rust is provided by dipping the bars in hot tar; these are then at once sanded to increase the adhesion of the mortar. At the ends ( quoins ) the bars are beaten flat and then double hooked to bars coming from transverse direction. At the junctions, the bars crossing each other are interlaced and single hooked. Hoop iron is now rarely used because of its higher cost and because of its thickness unless thicker joints are used.

(2) Steel mesh

Another form of horizontal reinforcement, which is more commonly used, is the provision of steel mesh strips called Exmet made from their rolled steel plates which are cut and stretched ( or expanded) by a machine to the diamond network. Such a strip is known as expanded metal ( Exmet ) and is provided at every third course. These strips are available in widths of 65 mm, 178 mm, and 230 to 305 mm, with thicknesses of 0.6 mm, 0.8 mm, and 1 mm.

They are supplied in coils of 83 m in length. To prevent Corrosion, the metal in the coil form is coated with oil and then dipped in asphalt paint. Cement CO first trowelled on the bed and the Exmet is uncoiled and pressed down in the mortar.

Another meshed reinforcement called Bricktor is made of a number of straight tension wires (1.4 mm) interlaced with binding wires (1.1 mm). One such strip is provided for every half-brick thickness of the wall.

(3) Longitudinal reinforcement

Horizontal reinforcement is also used for brick lintels as shown in Fig. . Generally, mild steel bars (6 to 11mm) are provided through the vertical joint, all along the span of the lintel. If the lintels carry heavy loads, resulting in heavy shear force. 6 mm dia. steel wire stirrups are provided at every 3rd vertical joint, as shown in Fig. The longitudinal steel bars (main reinforcement) should extend 150 min beyond the jambs.

(B) Vertical Reinforcement

Vertical Reinforcement, in the form of mild steel bars, is provided in brick columns, brick walls brick retaining walls. In such circumstances, special bricks, with one or two holes extending up to the face, are used Vertical mild-steel bars are then placed in the holes.

(1) Reinforced brickwork in columns,piers

These bars are anchored by a steel plate or wire-tie at some suitable interval. below Fig. shows the details of reinforced back work piers

(2) Reinforced brickwork in retaining wall

Brick retaining walls are often reinforced since such a work is cheaper than the reinforced cement concrete when the height of the wall is up to 3 m (Fig.). Vertical reinforcing bars are placed vertically near each face, in addition to steel meshed strips at every fourth course.

The brick opposite each bar is purpose-made, having a groove. The size of the groove is kept slightly more than the diameter of the bar so that it may be grouted in with cement mortar, to prevent corrosion, Steel wire ties may be provided at every fourth course.

In all types of reinforced brickwork, it is essential to embed the steel reinforcement in rich cement mortar (usually 1 : 3). with a proper cover so that reinforcement is not corroded. Corrosion will result in an expansion of the joint and consequent cracking.

The bricks should also be of high quality, possessing high compressive strength so that optimum use is made of all the materials (i.e. bricks, mortar, and reinforcement).

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Hello, guys here i have explained what are the stone masonry standard specifications for good quality of stone masonry work. I hope you like this article, read it completely.

There are basically three types of masonry widely used in all countries. I have explained these three masonry with the proper ratio of cement mortar or lime mortar.

Here are stone masonry specifications: 

(1) Uncoursed Rubble Stone Masonry  In lime/cement mortar 1:6 in the superstructure 

(2) Coursed Random Rubble Stone Masonry in lime/cement mortar 1:6 in Superstructure 

(3)  Ashlar Stone Masonry in lime/cement mortar 1:6 in Superstructure 

(1) Uncoursed Rubble Stone Masonry: In lime / Cement Mortar 1:6 In The Superstructure

 (A) Materials :

(i) Stone :

The stone shall be hard, sound, and free decay and weathering and of approved quality. The size of stone shall not be less than 15 cm in any direction stone shall be hammer dressed to secure close joint so that the stones when laid will come into close proximity stone with round surface shall not be used. Cement and sand for cement mortar or lime and surkhi (sand) for lime mortar small be of standard specifications. 

(ii) Mortar :

Mortar shall be as specified, may be of cement mortar (1:3 to 1:6) or lime mortar (1:2 to 1:3) Mortar shall be first dry mixed to have the required proportion and then mixed with water by adding water slowly and gradually and mixed thoroughly to get a uniform mortar of workable consistency. Freshly mixed mortar shall be used, Joints shall not be thicker than 2 cm. face joints shall be thinner.

(B) Laying : 

All stones shall be thoroughly wetted before laying. The walls shall be carried up truly plumb. 

Face stone shall not be narrower than its height and shall tail back and bond well into the backing. The stones shall be arranged to break joint on the face for at least half the height with those of courses above or below.

 The thickness of joints shall not be more than 2 cm. Stones shall be laid with Broader face downward to give good bedding Cornerstones of quoins should be a good stone and dressed to correct angle and laid as headers and stretchers. 

The Interstices between stones shall be wedged with stone chips and spalls to avoid thick beds of joints and mortar. 

Through stones : Through bond stones of one piece shall be provided and for every 0.5 sq.m of face and should extend to the full thickness of the wall. For walls thicker than 75 cm, bond stone may be of two pieces placed side by side overlapping at least 15 cm. Breadth of bond stones shall not be less than 1.5 times the height. Not more than 60 cm height of wall shall be constructed at a time. If any part of a wall is required to be raised in advance, tooting must be formed by giving projections to bond with the wall to be built later. 

(C) Curing 

The work shalt be protected from rain or sun while it is green At the end of the day’s work the tops of walls shall be left flooded. The masonry shall be kept moist on all the faces for at least 7 days.

 (D) Measurement: 

The  Uncoursed random rubble masonry work shall be taken in cu.m after measuring Length. breadth and thickness to the nearest 1 cm. The rate of item Include the cost of scaffolding.

(2) Coursed Random Rubble Stone Masonry In Lime / Cement Mortar 1:6 In Superstructure 

(A) Materials :

 (ii) Stones :

Stones shall be hammer dressed on bed and top and also on sides so that stones will come to close proximity and each stone can be laid in course.

The stone shall be hard, sound and free from decay and weathering and of approved quality. The size of the stone shall not be less than 15 cm in any direction Stone with round surface shall not be used. 

(ii) Mortar : 

Mortar shall be as specified, may be of cement mortar (1:3 to 1:6)or lime mortar (1:2 to 1:3) Mortar shall be first dry mixed to have the required proportion and then mixed with water by adding water slowly and gradually and mixed thoroughly to get a uniform mortar of workable consistency. Freshly mixed mortar shall be used. Joints shall not be thinker than 2 cm. face joints shall be thinner.

(B) Laying: 

All stones shall be thoroughly wetted before laying stone shall be laid with broader face downward and vertical joints should be broken. All courses shall be truly horizontal and all joints shall be full of mortar. Outer faces of stones shall be squared by hammer dressing to give a good appearance, and faces of wall shall be truly in plumb. 

Through stones Through bond stones of alone place shall be provided with an Interval a through stone not less than 1.5 m In each course. For walls up to 60 cm thickness shall extend from and face of the wall to other. But in case of walls of greater thickness, band stone may be of two pieces placed side by side overlapping at least 15 cm. 

(C) Curing : 

The work shall be protected from rain or sun while it is fresh. At the end of the day’s work the tops of walls shall be left flooded. The masonry shall be kept most on all the fares for at least 7 days. 

(D) Measurement: 

The random rubble masonry work shall be taken in cu.m after measuring length. breath and thickness to the nearest 1 cm. The rate of item Include the cost of scaffolding.

(A) Materials :

(i) Stones :

The stone shall be hard, tough. round and durable of approved quality. Stones shall be chisel dressed on all sides to have perfectly square or rectangular faces so that they may be laid in perfectly horizontal and vertical joints. 

The minimum height of stone shall be 20 cm and breadth not less than 1.5 time  the height. 

(ii) Mortar :

Mortar shall be as specified, rich fine mortar shall be used. maybe of cement mortar 1:2 to 1:6 or lime mortar 1:1 to 1:2. Materials of mortar eg. cement or lime and sand shall be of standard specifications. 

Mortar shall be first dry mixed to have the required proportion and then water is added slowly and gradually and mixed thoroughly to get a uniform mortar of workable consistency. Freshly mixed mortar shall be used. 

(B) Laying : 

The stones shall be wetted before laying. Stones shall be laid in regular courses. of not less than 14.5 cm in height and all the courses shall be of the same height. All courses shall be laid truly horizontal and all vertical joints shall be truly vertical. Face stones shall be laid header and stretcher respectively. No joint shall be thicker than 3.5 mm.

 If pointing is not provided as separate then , the joints shall be struck and finished at the time of laying. Not more than 60 cm height of masonry shall be constructed at a time. 

(C) Curing : 

The work shall be protected from rain or sun while it is fresh. At the end of the days work The tops of walls shall be left flooded. The masonry shall be kept most or all the faces for at least 7 days. 

(D) Measurement : 

The ashlar masonry work shall be taken in cu.m after measuring length breadth and thickness to the nearest 1 cm. The rate of item Include the cost of scaffolding.

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We all know that water or fluid are supplied from one location to the another location using pipeline networks.So we will see in detail how pipeline construction is carried out.

After designing the pipelines required to supply water to the public for various purposes, the process of pipeline construction for water distribution is known as “Laying of pipe lines”.

 Pipelines are usually laid underground  But it can also be laid on the ground when the pipeline passing through an open area is not obstructing anyone and there is no possibility of any damage to the pipeline. 

Procedure for laying of pipes :

pipeline construction is done in the following different stages:

1) Preparation of Detailed map

2) Setting out the center line Excavation of trenches

3) Laying and connecting pipes

4) Lowering and jointing of pipes

5) Testing for leakage and pressure

6) Back filling & cleaning of site

7)Testing of pipeline

1) Preparation of detailed map:

After conducting an engineering survey of the pipeline, as per its detailed proposal, a map showing the space or area through which the pipeline is to pass may be prepared along the roads, streets and lanes etc. 

The proposed pipeline is shown on this map along with its size (length, diameter, etc.).  In addition to this, other details like existing pipelines, sewer lines and telephone lines in the area are also shown on this map.  In addition to these details, things like valves, stand posts applicable to the proposed pipeline are also marked so that the work can be done easily without any difficulty when the execution of the pipeline is carried out.

2) Setting out the center line: 

After preparing a detailed map for the pipeline plan, the center line of the pipeline is printed on the actual locations.  Pegs or stakes are placed every 30 meters to mark the center line.  This distance is kept from 5 m to 15 m in the diagram of the pipeline where curvatures occur.  Where roads or streets have curbs, the centre line of the pipe is measured from the curb.

Site Cleaning

Making Center Line of Pipe

 3) Excavation of trenches:

After the center line of the pipeline is marked on the ground, digging of trenches is started.  The width of the trench is usually 30 cm to 45 cm or more than the diameter of the pipe.  The width of the trench is about 15 to 30 cm more than pipe diameter where joints are comes.

The trench is dug in such a way that the both ends of  pipe hang freely while the rest of the pipe touches the bottom of the trench.

The pipe is usually kept at a depth of about 90 cm below the ground level so that the pipes do not break due to heavy traffic above it. 

Timbering to the trench should be provided on both sides of the trench if the pipe is to be dug deep in soft or slippery soil. 

4) Lowering and jointing of pipes:

After the excavation of the trench is completed, the laying of pipes is started.  There are usually two things to keep in mind when laying pipes and connecting them.  On the one hand, the pipes are placed on the opposite side of the trench to make the work easier. 

And work is started from its lower level.  In which the pipes should be connected in such a way that the socketed end of the pipe is facing towards the higher side.  As well as aligning the pipe, jointing is also done.

 5) Testing for leakage and pressure:

 Pipes are tested in a standardized manner for leakage and pressure after they are lowered and aligned.

6) Back filling and site cleaning:

After proper testing of pipes is completed, backfilling is done by the soil removed during excavation.  When filling the trench, the soil is carefully filled by pressing the soil on the rotating side of the pipe, after filling the trench, the surplus soil is removed and the site is cleaned.

Specification for laying of pipes

 (1) Unloading of Pipes:

Two men should be used for unloading pipes weighing up to 60 kg when mechanical equipment is unavailable for unloading pipes from transport equipment.

 Heavy pipes from trucks or wagons should be tied with ropes and then slides off the planks with a slope of no more than 45. 

 Only one pipe should be lowered at a time. Under no circumstances should the pipe be thrown down from the carrier and should not be pulled or rolled in such a way as to rub against a hard surface.

(2) Storage of pipes:

Handling and storage should be done very carefully to prevent damage to pipes and their fittings.

 The pipes should be arranged in a row on one side of the trench parallel to the midline of the trench.  The socketed ends of the pipes held in this way should be kept towards the upstream side of the flow. 

Pipes of the same type and diameter should be stacked.

(3) Cutting of the pipe:

When a pipe is to be cut to a certain length, a line should be drawn with a chalk on the side of the pipe at the place where it is to be cut. 

This line should be marked in such a way that it is perpendicular to the mid line of the pipe. 

The pipe should be held firmly on two parallel wooden rafters nailed with cross beams in such a way that the marking of the part to be cut is between these two beams.

The pipe should be cut very precisely from the spot marked with the help of a carpenter’s saw or a long bladed hex.

 Cutting the pipe should be avoided as long as possible by keeping the end part hanging, as the weight of this hanging end is likely to cause the pipe to be cut before it is fully cut.

 (4) Excavation of trenches:

Excavation of trenches should be done in such a way that the pipe stays in its fixed alignment and at a certain depth.

 If the soil at the bottom of the trench is soft or has a made up bottom, the soil should be well soaked and rammed and if there are any depressions in the bottom of the trench, it should be filled in layers with a thickness of 20 cm with sand.

When the bottom of the trench is extremely hard or rocky or gravelly, the trench should be excavated at least 15 cm below its designed grade, followed by stone, gravel or sand. 

 The trench should be filled to its required grade (Fine moorum can be used instead if fine soil or sand is not available nearby).

 A flat surface should be prepared by compacting the clay thus filled.  If blasting is required to dig a trench in any case, it should be removed to a safe place if there are pipes or other damaged material around the blasting site as well as already covered pipeline near the site to prevent damage to such material due to blasting.

After digging the trench, instead of inserting sockets in the pipe, cavities are prepared.  This excavation is done in such a way that there is enough space at the bottom of the pipe to connect the pipe joints and the rest of the pipe can be adjacent to the bottom of the trench. 

Once the pipe is connected, these socket holes or hollows should be filled with sand.  Necessary timbering work should be done during excavation and if water enters the trench, the trench should be dug by proper dewatering.

(5) Laying of pipes:

Pully block, shear legs, chains are suitable for laying pipes in the trench.  Ropes as well as other erection equipments should be used.  Never push the pipe into the ditch by rolling or dropping. 

One end of each rope should be tied to an iron or wooden peg dug into the ground and the other end should be held in a man’s hand and the pipe should be lowered slowly.

 The trench pipes should be arranged in such a way that the spigot of one pipe is exactly centered in the socket of the other pipe and then it should be pushed carefully and fitted to the full depth. 

Pipeline should be laid with proper connection of pipes and at proper level.  Each pipe should be fairly flat so that it touches the bottom of the trench.

Soils with a texture similar to black cotton soil, when saturated or dry, tend to soften or crack, respectively.

An sand layer of at least 10 cm thickness should be made on the rotating side of the pipe in the trench of pipes passing through such clay area.

 Formation of thrust blocks to protect the structure of the pipe against hydraulic thrust in front of each section where the direction or size of the pipeline changes or where the dead ends occur. 

(6) Backfilling of trenches:

Backfilling must be required to prevent damage from falling stones in the trench or movement in the position of the pipe in the open trench.

 In addition to this, in case of flood or discharge of water in the open trench, the work of filling the trench should be done immediately to avoid the possibility of lifting the pipeline. 

The soil around the pipe as well as the bottom should be packed by crushing and grooving so that the pipeline has a uniform and continuous support.

 The tamping bar should be used for tamping the soil and water should be used to fill the trench soil evenly.

The clay used in filling the trench should not initially contain lumps or stones.  When filling the soil, it should be filled with proper consolidation in layers about 10 cm thick without filling it all at once and the soil should be pounded till a cushion of about 30 cm is formed on the pipe.

 Normally after the entire trench is filled, about 10 cm more soil should be raised from the surface of the trench and it should be compacted properly.  By doing so the soil inside the trench becomes natural.  Excess clay from the top is properly incorporated into the trench.

(7) Hydrostatic Test:

 After construction of any new pipeline, its proper connection and after completion of trench refilling, the following tests are performed:

(i) Double the working pressure at which the pipe water is to be carried or  The pipe is tested by applying high pressure. 

Each joint must prove to be completely hydrated during the effect of this pressure.

(ii) After completion of pressure test, leakage test is done for a period of at least two hours with the pressure as prescribed by the local authority.

 Hydrostatic testing of each section of about 500 m length is usually done during the ongoing work of the pipeline.  By doing this test, if there is any error in the workmanship during the ongoing work, rectification can be done immediately at low cost. 

(8) Leakage test:

Water is filled in the section to be tested to find out how much water is leaking from the newly laid pipeline.  And care is taken that no air remains anywhere in the entire section.  After observation for about two hours, water leakage is calculated using the following formula:

Q=ND √P/3.3

Where,

 Q = Allowable leakage Cm³ / hr

N = Number of joints in the section

 P = Average test pressure kg / cm²

 D =  Dia. Of pipe in mm

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Hello Guys today we will see what deterioration of concrete and its causes and how to prevent them in detail. I hope you like this article.

What is deterioration of concrete  ?

Deterioration of concrete means due to various factor like leaching action , chemical reaction , crystallization and corrosion of concrete reduce the durability of concrete which effect overall strength of structure.

Deterioration of concrete:

 There are two main reasons for low durability of concrete.

1) Deterioration Of Concrete

2) Corrosion Of Reinforcement

These two phenomena cannot be separated from each other, as the corrosion of reinforcement is due to the deterioration of the concrete cover.  On the other hand, corrosion of reinforcement (rods) causes internal stresses in the surrounding concrete and further breaks the concrete around the rods.

 Concrete has very fine cracks.  If the number of these microscopic cracks is low.  And breakage does not affect the durability of concrete, but when these cracks become continuous and wide due to internal factors, aggressive ions and gases easily reach the reinforcement, corrode it and reduce the durability of concrete.

Types of Deterioration:

Concrete is degraded not only by acids or acidic gases in the form of water solution, but also by salt solutions and alkalis. Other elements such as chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and some organic compounds are also harmful to concrete. 

Concrete deterioration caused by corrosion of rods by different aggressive chemicals can be divided into three groups.

There are three main forms of concrete destruction.

 (i) Leaching Action

(ii) Chemical Reaction

(iii) Crystallization

(i) Leaching Action:

This type of destruction is caused by dissolving frozen cement components in aqueous solution.  The calcium hydroxide of hard cement is soluble, hence the destruction of concrete by leaching action, also known as lime leaching.  Lime leaching depends on the permeability of the concrete.  When the free lime in the concrete is leached, the hydrolysis of calcium silicate and aluminate releases more lime which is re-leached.

Leaching Action

The presence of salt in the solution affects the dissolution rate of calcium hydroxide.  For example, the presence of the same ions (Ca++),( OH-) slows down this rate, while other ions such as (SO^-2₄),(CL^– ), (Na+), (K+) etc. accelerate this rate. 

Leaching Action

Leaching lime react with carbon dioxide and  Forms calcium carbonate, so white calcium carbonate is spread on the surface of the concrete, which is called the death of concrete from leaching.

(ii) Chemical Reaction:

Calcium salt is formed by the chemical reaction between hardened cement constituents and acid solution or salt solution.  The product of a chemical process is removed from the concrete by diffusion process or percolation if soluble in water.  But if the product is not water soluble it sticks to the concrete surface which can be easily washed.

Chemical Reaction

Deterioration of concrete due to acid attack

It is clear from Figure above that low doses of hydrochloric acid (HCI) do more to break down concrete than sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄).  This is because the calcium salt (CaSO₄) produced by the chemical reaction of H₂SO₄ with the lime of the concrete is less soluble, which fills the cavities of the concrete and prevents the breakdown of the concrete sue to acid.

 (iii) Crystallization:

Crystallization occurs when salt accumulatesin the cavities of concrete.  This causesinternal stresses in the concrete and cracks in the concrete.  These salts that accumulate in concrete cavities are either produced by chemical process or enter the cavity by salt solution from outside.  Concrete breaks down quickly due to simultaneous drying and wetting of the concrete memberscontaining the soluble solution.  Magnesium ions, together with sulphate ions (MgSO₄) break down concrete faster, as crystallization of gypsum increases the permeability of concrete.

Crystallization

Prevention of concrete Deterioration:

 The following two things are very important for the durability of concrete.

 (1) Proper bonding agent which has good resistance to chemicals.

 (2) Adequate compaction of concrete to get its  high density

(3) Information on water / cement ratio, cement ratio, curing conditions, use of admixtures, etc. is useful to prevent concrete deterioration.

(4) If water cement ratio increase from 0.45 to 0.5 then it increase permeability too high Therefore the water-cement ratio should be less than 0.45 – 0.55.

(5) The amount of cement for a given water / cement ratio depends on the need for workability . Also, the amount of cement should be such that the required pH value of the concrete is obtained and the reinforcement  passive atmosphere occur against erosion.

(6) The minimum cement content in concrete used in seawater or coastal environments should be 350 kg/m. 

(7) In addition, the water / cement ratio and cement ratio should be such that the cement paste produced can fill the cavities of the aggregate, the proportion of cavities or voids in the aggregate depends on the type of aggregate and the maximum normal size.  E.g.  , 20 mm size aggregate of crushed rock has 27% void ratio and 20 mm size aggregate of river round gravel has 22% void ratio.

  (8) From the use of 0.45 water / cement ratio and 400 kg/m3 The size of the paste produced from cement is about 30%, which is enough to fill the cavities of the aggregate of broken stone.

(9) On the other hand, the paste produced from 0.50 water / cement ratio and 300 kg / m cement has a size of 25%.  Which is enough to fill the cavities of the circular gravel of the river. 

(10) At least M – 15 concrete grade for PCCand at least M -20 concrete grade for RCC should be used in seawater or coastal concrete.

(11) Such concrete should use Portland slag-cement or Portland Pozzolona cement. Super sulphate cement is also beneficial.

(12) Deterioration of concrete can be prevented by creating a natural or artificial carbonated layer on the surface.  The carbonated layer prevents the deterioration of concrete by leaching. 

(13) Applying a solution or a small amount of acid to the surface of the concrete produces a layer of calcium salt which is less soluble than calcium hydroxide so that the deterioration of the concrete stops. 

(14) The durability of concrete can also be enhanced by inserting a polymer into the cavity.

Corrosion of Reinforcement:

Corrosion of reinforcement is a very complex process.  Which includes chemical, electrochemical and physical processes.  When reinforced steel is corrugated, iron oxide is produced which is 2 to 4 times the size of the corrugated steel.

Corrosion of Reinforcement

 Thus in concrete, high pressure are produced around  the rod.  So that the concrete cracks and breaks.  Secondly, corrosion reduces the cross section of the rod and also reduces its ability to withstand tensile forces. 

Cracking due to rust

To corrosion of the rod must first satisfied  an electrochemical cell .  This cell has two electrodes – anode and cathode.  These two electrodes are separated by electrolytes and connected in an electric circuit.

 On the surface of reinforcement steel, the part where the most oxygen is concentrated becomes the cathode and the part where the less oxygen is concentrated becomes the anode.

corrosion cracking spalling delamination

Concrete always has a small amount of moisture which acts as an electrolyte.  Concentration of salt in water in cavities in concrete also forms electrochemical cells.  The part with the highest concentration of salt becomes the anode, while the part with the least concentration of salt becomes the cathode.

This is the potential difference between anode and cathode.  Which, in the presence of water and oxygen, oxidizes the steel to form iron oxide.  The + charged ferrous ions near the anode move into the (Fe ++) solution while the charged free electron (e) passes through the steel and reaches the cathode. 

Corrosion mechanism and electrochemical cell

These free electrons (e) form hydroxyl ions (OH) together with water and oxygen near the cathode.  This (OH) ion combines with (Fe ++) ions to form ferrous oxide Fe (OH)₂.  Re-oxidation of ferrous oxide results in the formation of ferric oxide Fe (OH)₃ followed by corrosion. 

Causes of Corrosion and Preventive measures):

 The main causes of steel corrosion and prevention measures are as under:

1)      1) Cracks in concrete

2)      2) Presence of moisture

3)      3) Permeability of concrete 

4)      4) Carbonation

5)      5) Chlorides

6)      6 )Sulphate attack

7)      7) Alkali – Aggregate reaction

8)      8) Inadequacy of cover

1)    1) Cracks in concrete:

Oxygen and seawater enter through cracks in concrete and create a suitable environment for corrosion.  For normal environments, the width of the cracks in the protected inside members should not exceed 0.30 mm and the width of the cracks in the unsafe outside members should not exceed 0.20 mm.

2) Presence of Moisture:

 The presence of moisture in concrete is essential for the corrosion of steel, as concrete can act as an electrolyte in an electrochemical cell only if there is moisture.  Corrosion cannot occur in completely dry or submerged concrete.  Therefore low permeability concrete should be used to prevent corrosion.

3)      3) Permeability of concrete:

If the concrete is porous, moisture, oxygen, CO2, seawater can easily enter it. If the water / cement ratio increases by 0.1, the permeability of concrete increases 1.5 times. 

Inadequate curing also increases the permeability of concrete by 5 to 10 times. 

Inadequate pressure also increases the permeability of concrete by 7 to 10. 

To reduce the permeability of concrete, minimum cement ratio should be 350 kg / m and maximum water / cement ratio should be 0.45.  In addition, adequate attention should be paid to aggregate grading, mixing ,  compaction curing.

  4) Carbonation:

 Carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the air enters the concrete and combines with calcium hydroxide to form calcium carbonate, which is soluble in water.  This process is called carbonation. 

Carbonation reduces the alkalinity of concrete and its resistance to corrosion.  The pH value of water in concrete cavities is 10.5 to 12.0.  But with carbonation it dropped to 9.0.  Is reduced, thus creating a favourable environment for corrosion.

Carbonation in concrete penetrates to a depth of 100 mm in 50 years.  To prevent corrosion of concrete by carbonation, it is necessary to cover the steel with at least 20 mm.  Good quality, high density concrete should be used.

5)      5) Chlorides:Chlorides enter concrete during concreting or during use. 

      Chloride content in aggregate for RCC should not exceed 0.05% and calcium chloride content in mixing water should not exceed 1000 mg / Lit (PPM).

 The concentration of Calcium Chloride (CaCI₂) used as admixtures in concrete should not exceed 1.5%.

 In addition, adequate attention should be paid to steel adequate cover, good quality concrete, aggregate with good grading. 

6) Sulphate attack:

Soluble sulphates like sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium etc. are present in water, soil or bricks. 

The volume when these sulphates combined with C3A and lime of cement is very large. 

So that the concrete cracks and the steel corrodes. 

For barrier against sulphate attack,

*concrete should not be less than M – 20 grade.

 *Sulphate resisting cement (CA less than 3.5%) should be used. 

*Cement content should not be less than 350 kg / m³ and water / cement ratio should not be more than 0.45

7) Alkali aggregate reaction:

OPC contains alkalis like sodium oxide (Na2O) and potassium oxide (K20).  These alkalis process with some reactive aggregates (traps, andesites, phyolites, silicious limestone, dolomite) called alkali aggregate reaction.

 This process causes the concrete to expand and crack. To prevent the effect of an alkali aggregate reaction . Reactive type aggregates should not be used. 

 The alkali content of cement should not exceed 0.6%. Portland Pozzola cement should be used.

 (8) Insufficient concrete cover:

If the concrete cover is insufficient, the steel will be corroded by sea water, moisture, carbonation.  The following cover is recommended in concrete as per IS 456-2000. 

1)Should not be less than the diameter of the rod.

2) The column should not be less than 40 mmfor the main rod. 

3)Under no circumstances should it be less than 20 mm.

4)  Must be no less than 50 for footing.

 In addition, the following steps are taken to prevent corrosion of steel. 

(i) Application of Protective coating

 (ii) Modification of concrete

 (iii) Change in Metallurgy of steel

(iv)Cathodic Protective stystem.

How To Repair Building Foundation 

{ Underpinning Process }

What Is Underpinning ?

The process of providing a new foundation below an existing foundation or strengtheningan existing foundation is called underpinning of foundations.

Purpose of Underpinning :

 Underpinning may be done for the various purposes, such as :

Methods Of Underpinning :

The various methods of underpinning are as follows:

1. Pit method
2. Pile method

1. PIT METHOD 

In this method, the entire length of the existing wall is divided into suitable sections of 1.20 to 1.50 m. length.

One section is excavated at a time. For each section, a hole is made in the wall, above the plinth level. The needle made from timber or steel section is then inserted through the hole and supported on jacks on both the sides of the wall, as shown in fig.

The pit is excavated and the existing foundation is taken up to the desired level and new foundation is laid. The alternate sections are taken up in first round and then the remaining sections arc strengthened as shown in fig.

If the wall to be underpinned is weak, the raking shores are also provided.
If the space to support needles on outside is not available, the cantilever needles projecting inside may be provided, as shown in fig.

2. PILE METHOD

In this method, the piles are driven at suitable intervals on both side of the existing wall. The needles in the form of pile caps are then provided through the wall; as shown in fig.

Thus, the existing wall is relieved of the loads coming on it. This method is useful for water logged areas and for walls carrying heavy loads. For underpinning very light structures, the piles are driven on both the sides of the structure and the brackets or cantileverneedles are provided to carry the structure.

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 What Is Cellular cofferdams ? Types And  How Its Constructed ?

cofferdam construction

The cellular cofferdam is made of steel sheet  piles  and  this  type  of  cofferdam  is  proved  successful unwavering large areas.

It may consist of diaphragm cells or circular cell or modified circular cells or cloverleaf cells,

Cellular Cofferdams  With Diaphragm Cells

In case of cellular cofferdams  with diaphragm cells, the series of arcs are connected to straight cross-walls as shown in Fig

Cellular cofferdam with diaphragm cells

The radius of arcs is generally made equal to the distance between the cross-walls. This will make tensions in arcs and cross-walls same.The  height  of  filling  in  all  cells  should  be  nearly  kept  uniform so as to avoid the possibility of distortion of the cross-walls.

Cellular Cofferdams  With Circular Cells

In case of cellular cofferdams  with circular cells, the series  of complete circles are connected by short arcs as shown in fig.  The radius of the arc is generally 2500 mm and it makes an angle of 30° to 45° at the point of contact with the circular cell.

cellular cofferdams  with circular cells

This type  of  cofferdam  requires  more  material  than  the previous type , but it has the following advantage :

(i) Each cell may be filled up independently of other cells without any  danger of distortion of cells. 
Hence, the construction work  for cells  may  be started simultaneously  from several points. The arcs are installed after the completion of cells.

(ii)  Each circular cell is a self-supporting unit.

(iii) For the construction of cellular cofferdam with circular cells, less  quantity  of steel per running length of cofferdam is  required as compared to that of the cellular cofferdam with diaphragm cell.

In case of cofferdams with modified circular cells, the arrangement of circular cells is made as shown in fig.

Modified cellular cell

In case of cofferdams with cloverleaf cells, the large circular cells are subdivided by straight diaphragm as shown in fig.

cloverleaf cells cofferdam

The cellular cofferdams are suitable for heights of 10 metres to 15 metres. The cells are generally 10 metres to 15 metres in diameter and they are placed at a centre to centre distance of about 12 metres to 18 metres.

Section of cofferdam

The cellular type of cofferdam requires  a rocky  river bed and the soil which is  found most suitable for this  type of cofferdam is clay, mud and silt on a bed of rock.

Following points are worth noting in connection with the cellular cofferdams

1) This  type of cofferdam has  got the advantage that little false work is required in its construction. Only top and bottom templates are required to drive the piles in proper position.

2) Each  cell  when  completed  forms  a  working  platform  for the adjacent cell.

3)  The materials  which are suitable as  filling materials  for this  type of cofferdam are crushed stone, broken bricks, gravel and sand. The clay  and other materials  which require consolidation before they  can offer resistance to external pressure should not be used as the filling materials.

4) The cellular cofferdams  can also be used on an irregular river bed. The lengths of steel sheet piles will have to be adjusted according to the profile of the river bed.

5)  The  curvature  of  the  sheeting  to  form  the  cell is  obtained through the ability  of interlocking clutches  of the steel sheet piles. These clutches  permit the deviation from one sheet pile to the other.

6)  The driving of steel sheet piles should be smooth. Otherwise, it will break the interlocking joint and the cell may fail.

7) If  there  is  any  danger  of  overturning  of  cell  due  to  earth pressure, the inside and outside berms should be provided.

8) It should be remembered that if one sheet or interlocking joint fails, the whole cell fails  with serious  consequences. Hence, this  type of cofferdam is  unsuitable for grounds  containing boulders or such obstructions.

9) It is  found that the cellular cofferdams  are relatively  hard to pull. It is very difficult to remove the first sheet pile. It is therefore necessary  to provide sufficient grease in the interlocks of the sheet piles before they are placed in position.

10) For  small  bridge  piers,  a  single  cell is  sometimes  made large enough to surround the entire foundation of the pier. As such a cell cannot be filled up, the steel sheet piles  are to be supported by circular rings.

11)  The detailed structural design of cellular cofferdams is rather complicated and the forces  which are taken into account in the design are weight of filling, weight of sheet piles, pressure due to water, resistance of soil to sliding, etc.

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CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDINGS AS PER NBC

According to the National Building Code of India – NBC [SP: 7-2005), buildings are classified based on occupancy as follows :

1.      Residential buildings

2.      Educational buildings

3.      Assembly buildings

4.      Institutional buildings

5.      Mercantile buildings

6.      Business buildings

7.      Storage buildings

8.      Industrial buildings

9.      Hazardous buildings

1.      Residential Buildings :

These are the buildings in which sleeping accommodation is provided for normal residential purposes with or without cooking or dining or both facilities.

It includes,

• Private dwelling houses
•  apartment houses (flats)
•  bungalows
•  School and college dormitories
• Hostels
•  Hotels
• Military barracks, etc

2. Educational Buildings

school

These hall include any building used for school, college or day-carepurposes involving assembly for instruction, education or recreation

3. Institutional Buildings

These shall include any building or part thereof which is used for purposes such as medical or other treatment or care of persons suffering from physical or mental illness or disease, care of infants, convalescents of aged persons and for penal or correctional detention in which the liberty of the inmates is re- stricted. Institutional buildings ordinarily provide sleeping accommodation for the occupants.

hospital

It includes.

•  Hospitals
• Nursing homes
• Sanatoria
•  Mental Hospitals
•  Jails, Prisons
• Orphanges, etc.

4. Assembly Buildings:

These shall include any building or part thereof where a group of people gather for recreation, amuse- ment, social, religious, political, civil, travel and similar purposes.

Assembly Buildings

For example,

• Theatres
• Cinema halls
• Assembly halls
• Exhibition halls
• Auditoriums
• Gymnasiums
• Skating rings
• Marriage halls
• Museums
• Places of worship Club rooms
• Dance halls
• Railway stations
• Bus stations
• Airports etc.

5. Business Buildings:

These shall include any building or part of a building which is used fortransaction of business, for the keeping of accounts and records for similar purposes.
The principal function of these buildings is transaction of public business and the keeping of books and records.

town hall

For example,

•  Court houses
•  City halls
• Town halls
•  Libraries
• Officies
•  Banks, etc.

6. Mercantile Buildings :

Shop

These shall include any building or a part of a building which is used as shops, stores, market, for display and sale of merchandise, either wholesale or retail.

7.Industrial Buildings:
 
These shall include any building or part of a building or structure in which products or materials of all kinds and properties are fabricated, assembled or processed.

power plant

For example,

• Assembly plants
• Power plants
•  Refineries Mills
• Gas plants
• Industries, etc.
• Dairies

8. Storage Buildings:

These shall include any building or part of a building primarily used for the storage or sheltering of goods, wares or merchandise.

Ware house

For example,

• Warehouses
• Transit sheds
•  Freight depots
• Garages
• Hangers
• Grain elevators
• Stables etc.

9. Hazardous Buildings

These shall include any building or part of a building which is used for the storage, handling, manufacture or processing of highly combustible explosive materials or products which are liable to burn with extreme rapidity or which may produce poisonous fumes or explosions.

Hazardous Buildings

These shall also include buildings used for storage, handling, manufacturing or processing which In- valve highly corrosive, toxic or noxious alkalies, acids or other liquids or chemicals producing flame, fumes and explosive etc.

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Various Components Of A Building 

various component of building

Broadly speaking, a building basically consists of three parts, namely

Lets discuss in detail.

Various Components Of Building

1.      Foundation

 It is the lowest part of a structure below the ground level which is in direct contact with the ground and transmits all the loads to the ground.

Depending upon the type of soil existing at site, its safe bearing capacity and the type of building which is required to be constructed, a structure may need shallow or deep foundations.

Foundation ( PCC , foundation masonary )

2.      Sub-structure (plinth)

 The portion of the building between ground surrounding the building and the top of the floor immediately above the ground is known as plinth.
The level of the surrounding ground is known as ground level and the level of the ground floor of the building is known as plinth level.

Sub Structure (Tile Flooring  , Concrete Flooring , Earth Filling)

The plinth height should be such that after proper levelling and grading the ground adjoining the building (for proper drainage) there is no possibility of the rain water entering the ground floor.

The height of the plinth should be not less than 45 cm from the surrounding ground level.

The following parts are covered in the plinth,

    3. Super Structure :

 It is that part of the structure which is constructed above the plinth level.

Important parts of super structure are shown in Figure  and described below.

(1)Walls 

Walls

Load bearing walls transfer the load of superstructure to the plinth.

Walls are provided to enclose or divide the floor space in desired pattern. In addition, walls provide privacy, security and provide protection against sun, rain, cold, etc.

 (2) Floors :

 Floors are flat supporting elements of a building. The basic purpose of a floor is to provide a firm and dry platform for people and other items like furniture, stores, equipment etc.

The purpose of providing different floors is to divide the building in to different levels for creating more accommodation within the limited space.

 (3) Columns :

A column may be defined as an isolated vertical load bearing member. Columns transfers load from beams to the foundation.

(4) Roof :

It is the uppermost component of a building and its main function is to cover the space below and protect it from rain, snow, sun, wind etc.

A roof can be either flat, pitched or curved in shape.

(5) Doors :

The main function of doors in a building is to serve as a connecting link between internal parts and also to allow the free movement into and outside the building.

Door ,  Window , Lintel

(6) Windows :

Windows are generally provided for the proper ventilation and lighting of a building.

As per I.S., minimum windows opening should be 10% of the floor area.

(7) Stair :

A stair is a structure consisting of number of steps leading from one floor to another floor.

The main function of stairs is two fold : firstly, to provide means of communication between the various floors and secondly that of escape from upper floors in the event of fire.

(8) Window sills :

Window sills are provided between the bottom of window frame and wall below, to protect the top of wall from wear and tear.

window sill below window

(9) Lintel :

The actual frame of a door or window is not strong enough to support the weight of the wall above the opening. Hence, a separate structural clement is provided over the door/windows opening. This is known as lintel, and is similar in character to a beam.

 (10) Beam :

 A structural member which carrier lateral or transverse forces is termed as beam. Beam  transfer loads from slab to the columns or walls.

(11) Chajja or whether shades :

Chajja or whether shades are generally combined with lintels of windows to protect them from sun, rain, frost etc.

 (12) Parapet wall : Parapet wall is constructed on the periphery of the roof slab to protect people from falling down the building.

Parapet wall

 (13) Coping

Coping is provided on the top of parapet wall. It prevents entry of rainwater / moisture from top of wall and improves asthetic of a building.

Coping

(14) Building Finishes :

Building finishes are used to give protective covering to various building components and at the same time, they provide decorative effects. Building finishes consists of the following items:

finishing of building

1. Plastering
2.  Painting
3.  Pointing
4.  Varnishing and Polishing
5.  Distempering
6. White washing 
7. Colouring

(15) Building Services:

Building services include services like

1. Water supply 
2. Drainage
3. Sanitation
4. Lighting
5. Acoustics
6. Electricity
7. Air conditioning
8. Ventilation
9. Anti-termite treatment, etc.
10. Fire detection and Fire control

water suppy system

The services like water supply, drainage and sanitation normally clubbed under the term ‘plumbing services.

 From consideration of safety of the users, the planning, designing and detailing of all services also based on norms prescribed by should be done based on provisions in the National Building Code and also based on norms prescribed by various statutory municipal bodies.

]]> https://engineeringbrother.com/15-basic-components-of-a-building-you-must-know.html/feed 0 551 https://engineeringbrother.com/spread-sheet-of-plaster-quantity-cost-estimation.html https://engineeringbrother.com/spread-sheet-of-plaster-quantity-cost-estimation.html#respond Fri, 24 Apr 2020 05:11:00 +0000 https://engineeringbrother.com/spread-sheet-of-plaster-quantity-cost-estimation/ Continue Reading....Spread Sheet of Plaster Quantity & Cost Estimation

Spread Sheet of Plaster Quantity & Cost Estimation

hello guys before downloading spread sheet of Plaster Quantity & cost Estimation read following helpful information.

Here i have provided download link of Plaster quantity spread sheet. you can download it from below link.

HOW TO USE SPREAD SHEET ?

INPUT DATA

you have to put following data .

1. Ratio of cement mortar
2. Area of Plaster work 
3. Thickness of Plaster work
4. Rate of cement
5. Rate of sand

OUTPUT DATA

after putting input data you will get  following output data

1. material cost of Plaster work
2. quantity of cement
3. quantity of sand

(ONE TAP DOWNLOAD LINK OF SPREAD SHEET)

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